Process cost analysis of performance challenges and their mitigations in sodium-ion battery cathode materials

The success of sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) hinges on mitigating underperformance in ways that are cost effective, manufacturable, and scalable. This work investigates interfacial, morphological, and bulk interventions to enhance the performance of layered metal oxide cathode active materials (CAMs) for SIBs. We mapped the full space of literature-reported SIB CAM challenges and their mitigations. We then estimated the manufacturing costs for a diverse and representative set of mitigation approaches. Adding sacrificial salts can be cost effective, given low materials costs and minimal process changes. By contrast, many methods are reported to tune CAM morphology. Several are likely challenging at scale due to process throughput and yield limitations. Finally, bulk modifications can mitigate the moisture sensitivity of some CAMs, a likely less costly route than expanding stringent atmosphere controls during manufacturing. We end by discussing the limits and promise of process cost analysis, given the current state of battery reporting in the literature.