Continent-wide urban tree canopy fine-scale mapping and coverage assessment in South America with high-resolution satellite images

Urban development in South America has experienced significant growth and transformation over the past few decades. South America's urban development and trees are closely interconnected, and tree cover within cities plays a vital role in shaping sustainable and resilient urban landscapes. However, knowledge of urban tree canopy (UTC) coverage in the South American continent remains limited. In this study, we used high-resolution satellite images and developed a semi-supervised deep learning method to create UTC data for 888 South American cities. The proposed semi-supervised method can leverage both labeled and unlabeled data during training. By incorporating labeled data for guidance and utilizing unlabeled data to explore underlying patterns, the algorithm enhances model robustness and generalization for urban tree canopy detection across South America, with an average overall accuracy of 94.88% for the tested cities. Based on the created UTC products, we successfully assessed the UTC coverage for each city. Statistical results showed that the UTC coverage in South America is between 0.76% and 69.53%, and the average UTC coverage is approximately 19.99%. Among the 888 cities, only 357 cities that accommodate approximately 48.25% of the total population have UTC coverage greater than 20%, while the remaining 531 cities that accommodate approximately 51.75% of the total population have UTC coverage less than 20%. Natural factors (climatic and geographical) play a very important role in determining UTC coverage, followed by human activity factors (economy and urbanization level). We expect that the findings of this study and the created UTC dataset will help formulate policies and strategies to promote sustainable urban forestry, thus further improving the quality of life of residents in South America.