Analysis of stand density effects on the stem form of Norway spruce trees and volume miscalculation by traditional form factor equations using terrestrial laser scanning (TLS)

Tree and stand volume estimates are relevant for forest inventories, forest sales, and carbon stock evaluations. Forest practice commonly uses generalized stem-wood volume functions; however, such generalized approaches neglect the stem form in detail. Hence, trees of a given species with the same diameter at breast height (d_1.3) and height (h) are always assumed to have the same form factor and thus the same volume. This case study focused on stem form variation of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) due to competition effects. Using terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), we measured the stem shape of 868 trees from a long-term spacing and thinning experiment in Germany. The plots covered a broad density range. We analysed the effect of competition and compared the TLS-determined stem volume estimates with those determined conventionally. TLS-based volume estimations showed that the lower the competition was, the lower the tree volume was with a given d_1.3 and h. Commonly used functions underestimated the volume stock overall by 4.2%, disregarding any levels. At plot level, underestimation varied from 0.7% to 7.0%. At tree level, the volume was under-and over-estimated by −10% to +10%, respectively. The more precise the examination was, the more suitable the application of TLS was for enhancing volume estimation.